Forms of address

Abstract

With address terms speakers appeal to their hearer(s) and convey both interpersonal and expressive meanings. The scale extends from endearment to deference and to terms of abuse. In linguistic research, terms of address can be approached from several perspectives as shades from polite to impolite, intimate and distant, colloquial and formal can be distinguished, and meanings depend on context. Diachronically, both the frequency and the semantic types of address terms have changed. Old English contains some, in Middle English a great variety is employed, Early Modern English shows a great diversity, and in Late Modern English proper address became enhanced in polite society. Present-day English has a more reduced selection with kinship and terms and occupational nouns, and varieties of English show cultural differences. The focus is on English, but developments in other languages are mentioned when relevant.