Abstract
BACKGROUND
T-cell lymphopenia and functional impairment is a hallmark of severe acute coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). How T-cell numbers and function evolve at later timepoints after clinical recovery remains poorly investigated.
METHODS
We prospectively enrolled and longitudinally sampled 173 individuals with asymptomatic to critical COVID-19 and analyzed phenotypic and functional characteristics of T cells using flow cytometry, 40-parameter mass cytometry, targeted proteomics, and functional assays.
RESULTS
The extensive T-cell lymphopenia observed particularly in patients with severe COVID-19 during acute infection had recovered 6 months after infection, which was accompanied by a normalization of functional T-cell responses to common viral antigens. We detected persisting CD4$^{+}$ and CD8$^{+}$ T-cell activation up to 12 months after infection, in patients with mild and severe COVID-19, as measured by increased HLA-DR and CD38 expression on these cells. Persistent T-cell activation after COVID-19 was independent of administration of a COVID-19 vaccine post-infection. Furthermore, we identified a subgroup of patients with severe COVID-19 that presented with persistently low CD8$^{+}$ T-cell counts at follow-up and exhibited a distinct phenotype during acute infection consisting of a dysfunctional T-cell response and signs of excessive pro-inflammatory cytokine production.
CONCLUSION
Our study suggests that T-cell numbers and function recover in most patients after COVID-19. However, we find evidence of persistent T-cell activation up to 12 months after infection and describe a subgroup of severe COVID-19 patients with persistently low CD8$^{+}$ T-cell counts exhibiting a dysregulated immune response during acute infection.
Taeschler, Patrick